As is illustrated in FIG. 1, a zoetrope 100 as taught by the prior art is a device wherein the perception of animation is achieved by successively revealing and obscuring a sequential series of individual, still images 108 in relation to an observer 200. A traditional zoetrope 100 is founded on a vertically positioned cylindrical outer wall 102. The outer wall 102 is perforated by a series of vertical viewing slots 104 that are regularly spaced around its circumference. An inner surface 106, which could, by way of example and not limitation, be a flexible strip of paper or other material or even the inner surface of the outer wall 102, is normally disposed interior to the wall 102 to support a series of individual images 108, each incrementally positioned relative to the last.
When the zoetrope 100 is rotated around an axis 110 passing through its geometric center and parallel to the viewing slits 104, the interior surface 106 of the wall 102 will be alternately perceived through the slots 104 and then obscured by the segments 112 of the outer wall 102 between the slots 104. Viewed through the rotating slots 104, each image 108 of the series of images 108 on the inner surface or wall 106 is briefly revealed as it reaches the same location where the preceding image 108 had been revealed.
When the zoetrope 100 is rotated at an appropriate speed, individual images 108 are revealed and obscured in rapid succession in relation to the positioned observer 200 such that the perception of animation is realized. So constructed and rotated, the zoetrope 100 creates a flickering effect wherein the observer 200 perceives illusory motion of the fixed images 108.
The apparent motion created by such zeotropes 100 according to the prior art was explained by scientists in the nineteenth century as being caused by a phenomenon referred to as persistence of vision. It was believed that, when still images, each slightly different, were displayed in a sequential order and shown in a certain flickering speed, our eyes and mind did not perceive them as individual images. The images were considered to have been superimposed one image into another, thus giving the impression of movement. While the historical theory related to persistence of vision is now considered by cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists, and media scholars to be inadequate, we are still able to see the resulting effect of those apparatuses as images in movement. In that sense, little has changed. The historical landmark established by the nineteenth-century scientists, while trying to develop not only plausible explanations but also practical devices that could provoke the right stimulus on our perception, is still acceptable.
In the zoetrope, the series of sequentially disposed images are normally shown in a cycle such that the first image continues the movement of the last image. This gives an impression of a never-ending loop. The animated cycle is important to creating the perception of a continuous moving effect as the cylinder spins. When this rule is not followed, a jump in the loop is perceived. The animated effect, although perhaps still seen, appears discontinuous and results in an incomplete movement.
Numerous inventors have contributed usefully to the art of zoetropes and other mechanical animation devices, but the precise origin of the zoetrope remains the subject of discussion. William George Homer (1786-1837) published his idea of a ‘new instrument of optical illusion’, which he called Daedaleum, in 1834. Ultimately, the Daedaleum became known as the zoetrope or ‘wheel of life.’ The zoetrope was described by the scholar Jonathan Crary as “a turning cylinder around which several spectators could view simultaneously a simulated action, often sequences of dancers, jugglers, boxers or acrobats.” (Crary, 1990, p. 110.) While Horner's publication is among the earliest known regarding the zoetrope, others including Peter Mark Roget (1779-1869), Michael Faraday (1791-1867), Simon von Stampfer (1792-1864), and Joseph Plateau (1801-1883) achieved milestones in the field. Indeed, some sources even mention an early version of the zoetrope in China around 180 A.D. by Ting Huan. These many scientific discoveries have proven to be complementary, each improving the scientific understanding of optical animation devices. While zoetropes have been embodied as toys, it must be recognized that they also represent important developments in the understanding of animation and how the movement of static images is perceived by the human eye and, just as importantly, the human mind. It is possible to say that it was through the evolution of the apparent movement already created by these devices, associated with the development of photographic technology, that led to the invention of the movie camera and projector in the late nineteenth Century.
In the Western world, the nineteenth century was a fruitful period for devices producing animation through the relative movement of still images with one or more observers. Optical animation devices like the Thaumatrope and the Phenakistoscope started a trend that triggered many variations and developments among which the zoetrope is considered one of the most popular. While the Thaumatrope and the Phenakistoscope were intended to be seen only by one person at a time, the zoetrope permitted multiple spectators to be enchanted by the animated drawings simultaneously. Émile Reynaud (1844-1918) soon developed the Praxinoscope, which enabled animated movement to be seen more clearly since the images are seen through a faceted mirror rather than a cylinder with slots. Curiously enough, all these variations were able to co-exist and were quite popular until the invention of cinema. This period is historically known as Pre-Cinema and those devices considered now as part of the media archeology studies.
In contemporary times, the zoetrope has gained more technological variations, being used not only as a toy for home entertainment but also as an installation for artistic and entertainment purposes. One of its most famous modern variations uses a strobe light synchronized with a rotating structure in place of a slotted drum. The strobe light reproduces the flickering effect of the slots, and the illusion of movement can be seen clearly. Many artists, animators, and studios use this modern system to create their own zoetrope-like installation, using three-dimensional objects to enhance the astonishing effect of their work. Among the most notably are Gregory Barsamian, Matt Collishaw, Hayo Miyazaki, and Pixar Studios.
Gregory Barsamian is an Armenian-American artist, known as a sculptor of time. He developed a structure that resembles a zoetrope, powered by an engine that presents a transformation cycle of physical objects, sculptured sequentially, rather than drawings. The strobe light visually freezes the rotating structure thereby enabling the formed objects to be viewed. Using the same technique as Barsamian, Matt Collishaw has gained attention due to his artistic collaboration with Sebastian Burdon to create an extremely elaborate three-dimensionally printed zoetrope. Hayo Miyazaki, the animator and creator of Studio Ghibli, also created a zoetrope with a strobe light to bring his Totoro character to life. His use of the zoetrope was carried forward by John Lasseter from Pixar who created a similar animation system with his ‘Toy Story’ characters. While many devices, such as the zoetrope, rely on movement of static images, others exploit relative movement of the observer, such as along a railway or other conveyance. For instance, other artists, such as the North-American Bill Brand, made animated installations, called “masstransiscopes”, with sequential panels disposed parallel to a train line and protected by boards with slits strategically cut out at established distances. The result is a colorful animation that takes first-time passengers by surprise when their train passes.
From the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, moving images have enchanted audiences through phantasmagoria spectacles and optical devices, such as the flipbook, the thaumatrope, the phenakistoscope, the zoetrope, and the praxinoscope. Advances in digital technology now permit new forms of animation that exploit the same principles as early optical animation devices.
Many devices were first conceived for scientific reasons, such as to understand how our eyes work and to perceive the world around us. Then, the entertainment potential of these optical devices was exploited with the creation of toys.
Permitting the user to trick his or her own perception by manually operating the devices is an important characteristic. They combine amusement and experimentation, provoking astonishment and wonder through their apparent simplicity of operation. Thus, art and entertainment along with science and technology are connected by the same obsession for registering movement, which led to the development of devices to astonish and attract the public. The manipulation of the device itself leads people to participate in the process of generating an animated image.
The very progression of optical animation devices and systems, many building on those previous, evidences the continued need for advances in optical animation, with concomitant opportunities to teach further about visual and mental human perception and, to equal advantage, opportunities to delight and entertain.